The first successful aerial ladder was patented in 1868 by Daniel Hayes.
It was constructed of wood and required several firefighters to raise by
hand through a series of gears and pulleys. The rights to this patent
were eventually sold to LaFrance. The Fire Extinguisher Manufacturing
Company, Babcock and Dedcrick also developed their own aerial ladders.
In 1879, John Hogan and Abner Greenleaf developed the first water tower.
It consisted of a 50-foot mast of pipe sections that had to be assembled
to attain the desired height and was then raised manually by cranks and
gears. Water towers were capable of delivering a large-capacity elevated
stream into the upper floors of burning structures.
During the 1880's, development of cotton-jacketed hose that was capable
of being packed flat instead of rubber hose on a reel allowed for a new
design in hose tenders, the hose wagon. Prior to this, hose was carried
on large reels mounted on two-wheel or four-wheel chassis. These new
wagons were also equipped with deck pipes, carried other equipment and
supplies, and provided better riding positions than the older hose
reels. Most engine companies of this period responded with two pieces of
apparatus -- a steamer and a hose wagon.
Seagrave developed a spring-assisted raising mechanism for aerial
ladders in 1902 that enabled the aerial ladder to be raised swiftly from
the bedded position. This was far more efficient and required
substantially less manpower. All aerial ladder makers would follow with
the development of their own hoisting mechanisms in the early 1900's.
The size and weight of horse-drawn apparatus had grown to the point
where most horses running at top speed would begin to slow down after
about a half-mile. Studies indicated that a motorized fire company could
be operated at about one-third the cost of a similar horse-drawn unit.
Like the introduction of steam pumpers, motorized fire apparatus was
seen as a threat. Looked at as unreliable, subject to mechanical
breakdown and unable to replace the beloved horses, it took several
decades for the changeover to take place nationwide.
The year 1906 is generally accepted as the beginning of the motorized
age in the American fire service. During that year, a pumper built by
Waterous entered service with the Radnor Fire Company in Wayne, PA. This
vehicle was equipped with two gasoline motors, one for propelling the
vehicle and the other to power the pump. Also during this year, the
Combination Ladder Company built a squad body on a Knox chassis and
delivered it to Springfield, MA. The introduction of motorized vehicles
revolutionized the fire service. Although there was some experimentation
with both electric and steam propelled vehicles, gasoline propelled
vehicles would replace the horses.
Another off-shoot of motorization was the development of a single piece
of apparatus, the triple-combination pumper, that would eventually
become the standard apparatus for most engine companies throughout the
country. Until that time, most engine companies operated with two
distinct apparatus, a steamer and either a hose wagon or combination
hose wagon equipped with chemical extinguishment equipment.
The triple-combination pumper incorporated all of these functions onto
one motorized vehicle. The first such vehicle was constructed by Tea
Tray Company, a small New Jersey builder in 1909, on an American Motors
chassis and delivered to Middletown, NY. During the same year,
International Motor Company, the forerunner of Mack Trucks, sold a
motorized tractor to Allentown, PA. It was used to motorize a former
horse-drawn ladder truck, believed to be the first motorized ladder
truck in the United States.
Ahrens-Fox introduced an unconventional pumper in 1911. Instead of the
conventional design of the time with the engine forward and the pump
located under or to the rear of the driver's seat, Ahrens-Fox located
its piston pump, characterized by a large chrome ball atop the pump, at
the very front of the vehicle, ahead of the motor. These vehicles became
known as reliable work horses that served for years.
While newly built motorized apparatus were delivered, during the early
years of motorization a large amount of horse-drawn apparatus was
motorized by the addition of two-, three- and four-wheel tractors,
making for some unusual appearing vehicles. Probably the most popular of
these were Christie two-wheel tractors, introduced in 1912. Almost 600
of these units were produced. This practice, which lasted about 10
years, was a much cheaper alternative for departments wanting to rapidly
motorize their fleets without the expense of purchasing all new
apparatus.
In 1913, Ahrens-Fox introduced a booster car, a small apparatus equipped
with a light-duty pump, water tank and hose. This type of apparatus
replaced the individual chemical units, but had a relatively short life.
This booster equipment was eventually incorporated as standard equipment
on newly constructed triple combination pumpers, eliminating the need
for separate booster rigs.
Up to this time, the only audible warning device on apparatus was the
bell. In 1913, a hand-cranked siren was introduced which was used in
conjunction with the bell.
The nation's first unit organized and equipped specifically to handle
unusual rescue situations was established in New York City in 1915.
Rescue Company 1 carried "oxygen helmets," life lines, pulmotors,
line-shooting guns, hand tools, cutting torches and related equipment.
Their purpose was to operate at extremely smoky fires such as in
subways, cellars, and sub-cellars, perform difficult ventilation, stop
ammonia leaks, and rescue collapse victims and trapped firefighters.
This unit was the forerunner of the heavy rescue and urban search and
rescue units in service throughout the U.S. today.
The following year, Dahill developed an air-operated aerial ladder
hoisting mechanism. This device utilized an air compressor to quickly
raise an aerial ladder from its bedded position.
By the early 1920's, pneumatic tires were appearing on fire apparatus.
This greatly improved the ride over previously used solid-rubber tires,
as well as the many still-in-service converted horse-drawn units with
metal or wood wheels. At the same time, a new type of apparatus, the
quad, began to appear. Many departments at this time operated city
service trucks. These were trucks that carried portable ladders and
other equipment normally carried by ladder companies, but were not
equipped with aerial ladders. These vehicles could be either straight
frame or tractor-drawn.
The quad combined the functions of the triple-combination pumper, but
was constructed on a stretched chassis capable of carrying the equipment
normally carried on the city service truck as well. These units were
usually operated by engine companies in lightly developed areas where
the height of buildings did not call for an aerial ladder or in areas
that were a distance from the nearest ladder company. The quad permitted
fire departments to provide limited ladder company functions while
saving on manpower and equipment costs.
Ahrens-Fox began producing 75-foot and 85-foot aerial ladders equipped
with air-operated Dahill hoists in 1923. An interesting
innovation on these units was a double bank arrangement to carry
portable ladders, located adjacent to each other under the aerial
ladder. Up to this time, ladder trucks had single banks. The double-bank
arrangement allowed for carrying additional portable ladders and a lower
overall height of the vehicle. It was also unnecessary to disconnect the
tiller steering wheel shaft to remove ladders on these vehicles, since
this shaft did not pass through the portable ladder rungs as it did on
single-bank units.
Although some of the earliest motorized fire apparatus were constructed
on commercially available chassis, the vast majority were built by fire
apparatus manufacturers on their own custom-built chassis. A trend began
to appear in the early 1920's when many commercial vehicle manufacturers
started to make their chassis available to fire apparatus manufacturers
to mount their body work on. This permitted smaller apparatus
manufacturers to specialize in compartmentation body work design and
firefighting capabilities while utilizing available vehicle chassis.
The changeover from chain-driven fire apparatus to power trains that
were shaft-driven gained momentum during the mid-1920's. By the end of
the 1920's, shaft-driven power trains had become standard.
Another milestone in fire apparatus development occurred during 1928,
when Pirsch delivered what was probably the first American fire
apparatus with an enclosed, custom-built cab. The majority of fire
apparatus up to this time were constructed with open cabs, primarily for
visibility and size-up when approaching the fire scene and to assist in
positioning the apparatus. These cabs were also doorless, to allow
firefighters in the cab to spring into action as soon as they arrived.
While over 30 years would pass before the enclosed cab became standard,
this unit was a first big step.
Apparatus delivered through the 1920's were equipped with right-hand or
left-hand drive, depending on the preference of the manufacturer or
individual department. By the end of the 1920's, left-hand steering was
becoming standard.
In 1929, Mack Trucks introduced an aerial ladder that was raised and
lowered through a power-take-off mechanism from the motor. This type of
aerial ladder operation, with additions and modifications, would become
standard.
Factory-installed windshields became popular on fire apparatus during
the early 1930's. Once considered unnecessary, windshields offered a
degree of protection from the elements, as well as allowing the driver
to see more safely by not having to squint constantly because of wind
hitting his unprotected face.
A hydraulic-mechanical aerial ladder mechanism was introduced by Pirsch
in 1931. For the first time, all three aerial ladder functions -- raise,
rotate and extend -- could be performed by a single firefighter.
Hydraulic lifting cylinders were used to raise the ladder from its
bedded position while the turntable was rotated and the aerial extended
mechanically. Prior to this, a large number of firefighters were
required to manually perform these functions through muscle power.
The first 100-foot aerial ladder was produced by Pirsch in 1935. It was
a three-section ladder constructed of metal with handrails on all three
sections. Although it would take almost 20 years, metal would replace
wood in aerial ladder construction. The introduction of the metal aerial
ladder was the death knell of the water towers. The strength of the
metal aerial allowed for the placement of ladder pipes at its tip,
negating the need for special units to provide this function.
A limited movement toward fully enclosed apparatus took place in the
mid-1930's. Several pumper designs were introduced that provided
enclosed riding positions for all firefighters. While this was a
significant safety development, the concept was ahead of its time and
met the usual fire service doubt and skepticism.
American LaFrance started offering 100-foot aerials in 1938, but they
differed from those of other manufacturers in being four sections
instead of three. This design permitted a shorter overall apparatus
length and the design of a permanently fixed tiller seat, tiller wheel
and windshield. Three-section ladders required the tiller seat to be
placed atop the ladder with the tiller steering column passed between
the rungs. On arrival at a scene, the tillerman needed to disassemble
and fold the tiller seat, windshield and steering assembly out of the
way before the ladder could be raised. American LaFrance's design was
far more efficient and innovative, and became an industry standard.
Fire apparatus became somewhat enclosed in the late 1930's, with the
introduction of half doors to open-cab models. These doors offered a
better degree of protection to those in the cab while affording the
maximum visibility provided by the open cab.
The heavy rescue trucks began to come of age in the late 1930's. Up to
this time, rescue trucks were basically customized hose wagons, usually
equipped with two rows of bench seating in the rear body. Specialized
equipment was carried inside compartments. The most common design was a
walk-through model.
The next revolution in fire apparatus design was the introduction of the
cab-forward chassis by American LaFrance in 1939. These vehicles had
their cab positioned ahead of the engine instead of behind it as in the
conventional design. Cab-forward chassis would eventually be used for
the majority of custom-built apparatus by almost all manufacturers. This
design provided much better visibility for the driver while also having
a better turning radius.
Another innovation introduced to the fire service in 1939 was the diesel
engine. The first diesel powered pumper was built by the New Stutz Fire
Engine Company, utilizing a Cummins diesel engine. Eventually, every
piece of fire apparatus constructed in the United States would utilize
diesel power, but widespread use of the diesel would not take place
until the 1960's.
Another new type of apparatus would appear in the late 1930's. Known as
the quint, this apparatus added a fifth function, an aerial ladder, to
the quad. This vehicle was utilized in the same capacity as the quad, to
provide a degree of ladder company functions in less active areas that
were remote from conventional ladder companies.
Some major developments came out of World War II. Probably most notable
among these were purpose-built airport crash apparatus. These resulted
primarily from the development of larger military aircraft, and they
were produced in large numbers. After the war, many were put to use at
newly developing civilian airfields. Advances in two-way radio
technology also resulted from the war, and it wasn't long before fire
departments realized the great advantages that two-way radio
communications afforded.
An automatic transmission was introduced for fire service use by Mack in
1957. It would take another decade before automatic transmissions made
in-roads within the fire apparatus industry. Today, it is a very rare
exception to have an apparatus built with a standard transmission.
One of the most important innovations in fire apparatus history took
place in Chicago in 1958. A 50-foot utility boom was purchased from
Pitman and outfitted with a large basket, monitor and piping, creating
firefighting equipment. This spurred a race among other manufacturers to
develop firefighting elevating booms. Other firms that developed booms
included American LaFrance, Baker, Hi-Ranger, Seagrave and Sutphen. Some
of these were telescopic designs, while others were articulated. All
were unique in design and construction.
In the late 1950's and early '60's, a small trend developed in the
number of rear-mounted aerial ladders being delivered. The trend only
lasted a few years, but saw Magirus and Goesink rear-mounted aerials
delivered on FWD, Mack, Maxim and Seagrave chassis. It would still be a
few more years before these compact, shorter ladder trucks would become
commonplace.
The late 1950's also saw the introduction of the air horn on fire
apparatus. This was a natural extension of the pneumatic brake systems
that were becoming popular. The air horn added to the audible warning
capability of apparatus, and many feel, ultimately led to the
elimination of the bell.
Electronic sirens began to appear on fire apparatus during the early
1960's. At first, they were installed in addition to the older, louder
mechanical sirens. In some cases they replaced the mechanical sirens.
Today, the old-style mechanical siren is making a comeback, to
supplement the quieter electronic models. Over the years, improvements
in automobile soundproofing, coupled with auto entertainment systems,
have severely limited the effectiveness of electronic sirens.
In the mid-1960's, major cities throughout the nation experienced
episodes of violent civil unrest. Riots and the resulting fires severely
overtaxed fire departments, but worse, firefighters and their apparatus
became targets. Fire apparatus were bombarded with bricks, bottles, fire
bombs and gunshots. Firefighters were killed and injured.
Most apparatus in service at the time were open-cab models, with
equipment carried on running boards and other exposed locations,
available for rapid use. Inner-city fire companies reacted by
constructing makeshift cabs, roof enclosures over the back steps,
enclosed tiller seats and even individual personnel enclosures that
resembled telephone booths on the apparatus. Some strange-looking
apparatus resulted. These events, more than any other single factor, led
to the design of crew cabs, where all firefighters rode in enclosed
positions, and compartmentation, to carry all tools inside locked
compartments.
In 1967, Seagrave introduced its Rear Admiral, a rear-mounted aerial
ladder mounted on a custom-built chassis that was equipped with
four-wheel steering. This gave the driver the capability of steering the
rear wheels from the cab, making the vehicle highly maneuverable in
tight, congested street conditions. Only several of these apparatus were
constructed and it would be almost 25 years before this option would
begin to become popular.
Another design innovation that appeared in 1967 was the top-mounted pump
panel. This placed the pump operator in a position that was safely
removed from traffic while at the same time, giving the operators better
overall view of the fire scene. While there are advantages to this
design, many inner city fire departments have stayed clear of it,
feeling that it makes the pump operator an easy target.
Snorkel introduced its Squirt articulated boom in 1968. This boom was
intended for tactical applications where water was needed in elevated
positions. It was a less expensive option than an elevating platform,
was intended for mounting on pumpers or hose wagons, and could be easily
retrofitted to most existing apparatus.
The middle to late 1960's saw the wide-scale introduction of crosslay
hosebeds and pre-connected hoselines. Up to this time, most hose was
carried in the rear hosebeds. Pre-connected crosslays offer an option
that allows for rapid water application under certain fire conditions.
In the early 1970's, Ward LaFrance created what was probably the most
controversial issue ever to hit the apparatus field. By aggressively
marketing a new color for fire apparatus, lime green, as being more
visible and therefore safer, a wedge was driven into the fire service.
Traditionalists stood behind the old standard red, while "progressive"
fire service personnel preached the advantages of the new color. At one
point, there were actually more apparatus being delivered in the new
color than the traditional red. Many fire departments, both large and
small, switched to the new color. But after about a decade, departments
began to switch back to red. Many apparatus were repainted. Virtually
every large department that had gone to the new color returned to red.
Currently, few new apparatus are being delivered that are painted lime
green.
A new sub-industry emerged within the fire apparatus industry during the
early 1980's. Partly because many fire departments were financially
strapped and partly because of the skyrocketing costs of new apparatus,
it suddenly became popular to refurbish existing older fire apparatus. A
total rebuild and overhaul could result in a virtually new apparatus at
a fraction of the cost of a new vehicle.
Around the same time, roll-up compartment doors began to appear on
American fire apparatus. These had been popular on European fire
apparatus for some time.
The 1980's also saw the widespread emergence of specialized vehicles
such as hazmat, cave-in rescue, water rescue, decontamination and
others. Their design varied greatly and included both older vehicles
being converted as well as custom-built new apparatus.
Ever increasing concern for firefighter safety led to the introduction
of larger, enclosed cabs that were capable of accommodating more
firefighters inside. In 1984, Spartan introduced a Super Command Cab
that had seating for two and full stand-up height. Other manufacturers
followed suit.
Increasing demand for medical services provided by fire departments
sometimes overtaxed available resources. Many solutions have been put
into operation. Some departments have modified pumpers to carry an
extensive array of advanced life support equipment. A handful of
departments have placed pumpers into service that have patient transport
capability. Other departments have placed ladder tenders into service as
the second piece of ladder companies. The ladder company personnel
respond in this apparatus to medical emergencies, drastically cutting
back on the wear and tear to the aerial ladder truck.
These ladders tenders carry firefighting tools, equipment and portable
ladders so that they can respond to fires when returning from the
medical emergency.
Apparatus with rear-mounted engines were introduced by Emergency One in
1985. This Hush design provides a quieter cab environment and better
weight distribution, and allows more firefighters to be carried in the
cab.
Revised National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) standards in 1991
had a huge impact on fire apparatus design. All firefighters were
required to ride in enclosed, seated positions, that were equipped with
seat belts. While the fire service had been moving towards fully
enclosed crew cab apparatus for some time, these standards solidified
this movement. Several federal laws and mandates also had an impact on
fire apparatus design. Engine size, vehicle emissions, axle loading,
anti-lock brake systems and other standards have all added to the cost
of fire apparatus production, helping to triple the cost of custom-built
vehicles over the last two decades, and leading to greater use of
commercially available chassis.
The development of multi-function vehicles has become more popular in
recent years. The primary cause of this in both paid and volunteer
departments has been insufficient staffing. Departments have been
attempting to provide more functions with fewer apparatus. These
vehicles are usually larger and bulkier, and are generally built on
three-axle chassis. Pumper-tankers, rescue-pumpers, hazmat pumpers and
paramedic pumpers are becoming popular.
What does the future of fire apparatus design hold? The American fire
apparatus industry is in the midst of a restructuring. In recent years,
many of the industry's manufacturers have been sold, merged, or gone out
of business. This restructuring continues with acquisitions and mergers.
The end result is hard to predict, but it's possible that only a handful
of major manufacturers or aligned companies will remain.
The trend toward commercial chassis will continue, as will greater use
of foreign chassis on which to mount fire apparatus body work. In all
probability, American apparatus will resemble European designs to a
greater degree. Much of the industry restructuring that is going on
involves foreign parent companies that will ultimately look to market
their products worldwide. Alternate-fuel vehicles are sure to come, but
like the changeover to horses, gasoline and diesel, will be slow to take
hold. But, most important, fire apparatus will continue to be
interesting, eye-catching vehicles.
